Click here to return to 19) A History of Domination
Partitioning Empire
Before Europe was divided into today's distinct countries with unique national identities, it was an empire. Before today's secular governments and diverse religious followings, there were monarchs who embraced the Catholic Church as the state religion. Before that, was imperial rule and the Pontifex Maximus (Supreme Pontiff), dating back to antique Rome and Caesar Augustus.
Pontifix Maximus was the title initially donned by Caesar Augustus as head of the state religion. Emperor Constantine would later assume the same title regarding Christianity. That was reinforced in 325 by Emperor Theodosius I, when Christianity became the official state religion of East and West Europe. Pope Leo III assumed the role when he crowned Charlemagne Emperor of Western Europe, in 800.
The Plague's Social Impact
Following Charlemagne, the Church, it's Holy Roman Emperors and provincial monarchs ruled Europe. However, due to excessive population growth, drought, famine, peasant revolts and the obvious immunities to adversity displayed by crown and church, discontent began to take root amongst commoners and some disenfranchised nobility, towards the late Middle Ages. Once the Black Death swept Europe, eliminating on average 45% of its population, oppression and poverty were replaced with expanded land ownership and prosperity.
The plague had also reduced the ranks of clergy, due to its involvement in last rights and monastically confined living. Once the pock-ridden corpses of priests, noblemen and monarchs were laid in the streets next to common peasant folk, the divine rule of king and the infallibility of the Church began to be questioned by the lower classes. Apparently, those who had been endowed with the divine right to rule or the robes of the Church were, after all, mortal and without distinct immunity.
The subsequent unraveling of Empire began as far back as Emperor Diocletian (245-311). Due to continuous barbarian border invasions, conflicting provincial social/economic issues and a declining size in it's standing army, Diocletian first attempted a division of the government into east and west spheres with two emperors, or a "diarchy". Although the intention was to better respond to civil and military issues, the consequences would be conflicting purpose and a division of Eastern Greek and Western Latin goals.
The model quickly evolved from two to four heads of government, with two superior emperors called "Augustus" (after Emperor Caesar Augustus) and two "Caesars" (after Julius Caesar the soldier and official). The Augustus emperors would rule while the Caesars would administer civil and military authority. However, succession became unclear and by 306, a year after Diocletian's death, it collapsed into civil war. This resulted in Constantine consolidating both Caesar and Augustus, once again taking up the mantle of sole emperor.
Nevertheless, the division of East and West on an administrative level had had a lasting effect on both the Empire's subjects and its rulers. Subsequently, Constantine replaced the unwieldy Tetrarchy with an expansion of the earlier Praetorian prefecture style of administration which, in Constantine's instance, left one emperor as supreme head. However, after Constantine's death the empire would be divided again amongst his three sons into western, central and eastern prefectures.
The More Permanent Diarchy
By this time, Constantine's government prefectures had matured and were handling the administration of the Empire's now numerous, subdivided provinces. The administrative governance of each was referred to as a "diocese". It was at this time that clergy assumed official positions alongside civil governors. As time went on, the Church became more integrated within the government with "vicars" eventually replacing the traditional "prefects".
Between the conquests of Clovis (466-511) and later Charlemagne (768-814), the Frankish Empire constituted what had been Rome's Western Empire. By the 9th Century, Carolingian Europe was its own distinct empire, broken into numerous dioceses.
The lay Byzantine Emperor had held the title of Pontifex Maximus since Emperor Constantine, thereby having final say in all ecclesiastical matters. Since the Western Pope anointed Charlemagne, he (the Pope), in effect, had made himself Pontifex Maximus of the West, elevating himself to Pontiff and eliminating the need for ecclesiastical approval from (the see of) Constantinople. Of course, this elevation was not approved or appreciated by the East, who continued to view the Pope as little more than Bishop of Rome. Consequently, frictions between the two churches increased.
Subsequent to the self-promotion, the Pope became the "Augustus" ruler of the West, with Charlemagne and his succeeding Holy Roman Emperors, acting as the Pope's "Caesars" or supporting ruler over military and civil matter. This new relationship empowered the Pope with considerable discretionary involvement in secular matters and Charlemagne proved a willing accomplice. Two and a half centuries later, east and west Church ties severed completely during the Great Schism of 1053. However, by then, the Catholic Church (Western Latin Church) and the Holy Roman Empire had matured to a solid foundation for modern Europe, far to the west of ever expanding Islam.
French Integration
During the 8th Century, the Frankish territory of Normandy was being invaded by Viking Norsemen. By the 10th Century, Normandy became a Scandinavian base from which to attack the coast of England.
When William the Conqueror (1028-1087), the Duke of Normandy, conquered England during the Norman Conquest and declared himself king in 1066, it then stood to reason, England had become a possession of William's Normandy. As the Scandinavian holdings on the continent became assimilated within France, all subsequent rulers of England would then be obligated as English monarchs to declare feudal homage to the Kings of France.
However, by the 14th Century, King Edward III, a Plantagenet, was on the throne of England. Edward's lineage dated back to the Frankish nobleman Ingelger (died 888) of the French Angevin Empire. The Angevin Empire consisted of a large portion of western France (see figure to right), an area considerably larger than the lands of Normandy, which sat to its northeast. Together, Angevin and Normandy represented the entirety of France's Atlantic Coast.
In short, Edward had every reason to believe his personal land holdings equaled half of all French lands. Therefore, why was he being asked to pay homage to France? He may have even felt tribute was due him. Taking this thought process out even further, perhaps only one monarch was required for both France and England, why not him? Not only was he William the Conqueror's heir, Edward was a French Plantagenet.
The Hundred Years' War
Edward's nationalist concerns were divided. He was an English king with French lineage and continental land holdings. Consequently, these joint land holdings and shared tributes connected two lands with different languages and often-conflicting pursuits.
After the overwhelming defeat of French forces at Agincourt, King Henry V of England's marriage to the Dauphin's sister, Catherine of Valois, and appointment to regent and heir of France, the war was quite literally considered lost for France. Subsequently, the Dauphin had nothing more to loose.
Because Joan was said to have visions of Michael the Archangel, Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, and had carried a message from God to the Dauphin to save "the holy kingdom of France", the conflict immediately changed from a secular one to a religious war. Furthermore, because the mission was specifically to save France, the war took on an additional nationalistic character. The English may have had ancient lineage claims to France's territory, but they were not citizens of France. They were English.
Arriving near the end of the conflict, Joan's role would be far more aggressive and nationally segregated. Paradoxically, Joan would claim her directive to be coming from God, while the pursuit of those uniquely nationalist goals would inadvertently undermine and weaken the Church's imperial grip on Europe.
Only towards the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War, following a path forged with Joan's own personal courage, would France suddenly emerge as a unified nation. Consequently, England, which had been an overwhelming military force, destined for victory throughout most of the conflict, would suddenly be handed total and absolute defeat. England would not only lose its territorial gains won during the lengthy conflict but also its pre-war, hereditary landholding. Consequently, for the first time since antiquity, England would again become an island nation. Ironically, transitioning to that island nation would become the key ingredient to forging England's own national identity. Over the next few centuries, England's eventual independence from continent and, eventually, the Church would raise it up to a world power.
All the seeds required for Europe's nationalization would be sewn during the Hundred Years' War, including language differences, disputed territories, allied relationships, along with the armies and navies required to sustain independence from future challenges or infringements.
Joan's Capture and Subsequent Impact
The Burundians surrendered Auxerre on July 3, 1430 and Joan entered Reims on July 16. The Dauphin was crowned King of France and Joan wanted to march on Paris immediately thereafter. However, Charles decided upon a truce to negotiate a peace, which the English used to refortify Paris. Once actions resumed, Joan was wounded. After a lengthy truce, Joan took to the field again in Compiègne, where she had been in the rear guard, which was then cut off. She was pulled from her horse and captured.
Once captured, Joan's fate was sealed. She was ransomed to the English who moved her to Rouen where she was subsequently tried. Tried? No military leader during the Middle Ages had been captured and "tried" before Joan.
However, in Joan's case they made an unwise exception. Until Joan, generals and captains had always been ransomed back to their respective camps, sometimes after being detained in captivity. However, Joan, who was the supreme commander of French forces, endured a treatment comparable with a criminal peasant, even after King Charles had bestowed Joan and her family with ranks of nobility.
The French clerics who had originally vetted Joan, in 1429, found her fit to lead. The clerics who tried Joan were both British and Burundian (an English ally). Nevertheless, all were members of the same Roman Catholic Church. Clear acceptance (approved vetting) by one group with condemnation (trial and execution) by another instantly placed national concerns above the ecclesiastical precepts of the Church. Moreover, it exposed internal church division to any laity that may be following the trial.
To further slant priorities, though a military leader, Joan was to be tried for heresy. Like Peter Waldo, who had been excommunicated by the Church for heresy a century before, Joan had claimed to be doing the work of God. However, unlike Peter Waldo, whose teachings were confrontational to the Church, Joan had only invoked the names of saints. Moreover, by all accounts going into her trial, she had been observed to be an obedient and observing Catholic.
A Political Necessity
The English had clear motives for trying and convicting Joan, but what of the Church? Since the trial was clearly driven by an English agenda, many of the available clergy would have probably preferred to be elsewhere. Consequently, a number of the participants were likely coerced.
Still, once onboard, the papal transcripts of the trial clearly indicate the Church as having a tenacious prosecution.
Once it was clear Joan would not be ransomed, the English were set on making an example of her execution. When her trial began in January of 1431, the court simply pursued heresy while making the most out of what some considered her spiritual incantations being beyond the ecclesiastic realm of Mother Church. Going back to the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed, anyone with different interpretations of scriptures than those approved by the church had been condemned as a heretic. In Joan's instance, she was not only excluding scriptural inspiration but was insisting to have had divine council directly with God?
Nevertheless, the outcome of the trial was never in doubt. England's refusal of ransom clearly indicated they wanted Joan tried and executed. Moreover, the Church wasn't about to entertain the possibility of Joan being God's emissary, and thereby admitting the Church to be in some way inferior to Joan's mission. Even though King Charles of France had been a supporter and beneficiary of Joan's efforts, he was likely concerned with being excommunicated along with Joan. He may have even had doubts about Joan's nationalistic policy of France for the French. What about the economic future of an isolated France, once its traditional English trading partner was removed from the continent? Subsequently, Charles was actively pursuing a peaceful solution to the war over Joan's instances of more immediate and costly military action. Besides, since Joan was able to turn a century old conflict around within days of her arrival, what would become of France's king should Joan ever prove dissatisfied with him? Joan's death had rapidly become a political necessity.
National Identity
Only towards the very end of the Hundred Years' War, following a path forged with Joan's own personal courage, would France suddenly emerge as a unified nation. Consequently, England, which had been an overwhelming military force, seemingly destined for victory throughout most of the conflict, would suddenly be handed total and absolute defeat. England would not only lose its territorial gains won during the lengthy conflict but also its pre-war, hereditary landholding. The loss of landholdings in France was at the very root of England's War of the Roses which followed immediately afterwards. Consequently, for the first time since antiquity, England would again become an island nation. Ironically, transitioning to that island nation would become the key ingredient to forging England's own national identity. Over the next few centuries, England's eventual independence from continent and, eventually, church would raise it up to a world power.
Still, Europe was evolving and questionable territories gradually began to form national boundries. Along with national identity would come an independence from Rome's Papacy and an ever-shrinking Holy Roman Empire. Monarchs would embrace their newfound nationality while science, discovery and Protestantism would begin to flourish.
Commentary
Arriving near the end of the conflict, Joan's role had been far more aggressive and nationally segregated. Paradoxically, Joan would claim her directive to be coming from God, while the pursuit of those uniquely nationalist goals would inadvertently undermine and weaken the Church's imperial grip on Europe.
All the seeds required for Europe's nationalization would be sewn during the Hundred Years' War, including language differences, disputed territories, allied relationships, along with the armies and navies required to sustain independence from future challenges or infringements.
Go to: Chapter 21) The Great Equalizer
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Partitioning Empire
Imperial Roots
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| Charlemagne's Europe |
Pontifix Maximus was the title initially donned by Caesar Augustus as head of the state religion. Emperor Constantine would later assume the same title regarding Christianity. That was reinforced in 325 by Emperor Theodosius I, when Christianity became the official state religion of East and West Europe. Pope Leo III assumed the role when he crowned Charlemagne Emperor of Western Europe, in 800.
 |
| "Plague Doctor" with Bird's Mask |
The plague had also reduced the ranks of clergy, due to its involvement in last rights and monastically confined living. Once the pock-ridden corpses of priests, noblemen and monarchs were laid in the streets next to common peasant folk, the divine rule of king and the infallibility of the Church began to be questioned by the lower classes. Apparently, those who had been endowed with the divine right to rule or the robes of the Church were, after all, mortal and without distinct immunity.
The Tetrarchy and Division
 |
| Byzantine Sculpture of the Tetrarchs |
The model quickly evolved from two to four heads of government, with two superior emperors called "Augustus" (after Emperor Caesar Augustus) and two "Caesars" (after Julius Caesar the soldier and official). The Augustus emperors would rule while the Caesars would administer civil and military authority. However, succession became unclear and by 306, a year after Diocletian's death, it collapsed into civil war. This resulted in Constantine consolidating both Caesar and Augustus, once again taking up the mantle of sole emperor.
Nevertheless, the division of East and West on an administrative level had had a lasting effect on both the Empire's subjects and its rulers. Subsequently, Constantine replaced the unwieldy Tetrarchy with an expansion of the earlier Praetorian prefecture style of administration which, in Constantine's instance, left one emperor as supreme head. However, after Constantine's death the empire would be divided again amongst his three sons into western, central and eastern prefectures.
 |
| Theoderic the Great |
The Church Embraces Dioceses
In 364, Emperor Valentinian I ascended to the throne in Milan Italy. To quell differences between the military and civilian officials of the empire, he agreed to once again establish a subordinate co-Augustus emperor. He chose his brother, Valens, to co-rule in the East.By this time, Constantine's government prefectures had matured and were handling the administration of the Empire's now numerous, subdivided provinces. The administrative governance of each was referred to as a "diocese". It was at this time that clergy assumed official positions alongside civil governors. As time went on, the Church became more integrated within the government with "vicars" eventually replacing the traditional "prefects".
"Barbarian" Inclusions
By the 5th Century, the ethnic and cultural identity of the western empire would be impacted by the invasions and integration of Germanic tribes. Initially, the invading "barbarians" (a blanket term used to describe non-Christians invaders) feared economic collapse of their new land holdings. Therefore, a conscious effort was made by this new rule to embrace existing trade and government institutions. Subsequently, the Goths proved willing supporters of the existing prefecture administration structure. Upon the re-conquest of Western Europe some 35 years after the overthrow of western emperor Romulus Augustulus (476), Theodoric the Great went to great lengths reestablishing the prefecture of Gaul, after his conquest of 510, reducing taxes in the process.Between the conquests of Clovis (466-511) and later Charlemagne (768-814), the Frankish Empire constituted what had been Rome's Western Empire. By the 9th Century, Carolingian Europe was its own distinct empire, broken into numerous dioceses.
Church Augustus
 |
| Pope as Pontifex Maximus |
Secular Ecclesiastics
The Western Latin Church remained tethered to Constantinople and the Eastern Empire until it crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor, in 800 CE, embracing its own emperor. Until then, a key area of disputed existed.The lay Byzantine Emperor had held the title of Pontifex Maximus since Emperor Constantine, thereby having final say in all ecclesiastical matters. Since the Western Pope anointed Charlemagne, he (the Pope), in effect, had made himself Pontifex Maximus of the West, elevating himself to Pontiff and eliminating the need for ecclesiastical approval from (the see of) Constantinople. Of course, this elevation was not approved or appreciated by the East, who continued to view the Pope as little more than Bishop of Rome. Consequently, frictions between the two churches increased.
Subsequent to the self-promotion, the Pope became the "Augustus" ruler of the West, with Charlemagne and his succeeding Holy Roman Emperors, acting as the Pope's "Caesars" or supporting ruler over military and civil matter. This new relationship empowered the Pope with considerable discretionary involvement in secular matters and Charlemagne proved a willing accomplice. Two and a half centuries later, east and west Church ties severed completely during the Great Schism of 1053. However, by then, the Catholic Church (Western Latin Church) and the Holy Roman Empire had matured to a solid foundation for modern Europe, far to the west of ever expanding Islam.
 |
| William the Conqueror |
Europe's Annexation of England
During the 8th Century, the Frankish territory of Normandy was being invaded by Viking Norsemen. By the 10th Century, Normandy became a Scandinavian base from which to attack the coast of England.When William the Conqueror (1028-1087), the Duke of Normandy, conquered England during the Norman Conquest and declared himself king in 1066, it then stood to reason, England had become a possession of William's Normandy. As the Scandinavian holdings on the continent became assimilated within France, all subsequent rulers of England would then be obligated as English monarchs to declare feudal homage to the Kings of France.
 |
| Plantagenet Holdings in France in 1154 |
Integrated England and France
In short, Edward had every reason to believe his personal land holdings equaled half of all French lands. Therefore, why was he being asked to pay homage to France? He may have even felt tribute was due him. Taking this thought process out even further, perhaps only one monarch was required for both France and England, why not him? Not only was he William the Conqueror's heir, Edward was a French Plantagenet.
 |
| Edward I Paying Homage to Philip IV |
Pre-Nationalism
King Edward III (1312-1377) of England, a Plantagenet with considerable French land holdings, and eventually France's Joan (Joan of Arc: 1212-1431), a common maiden from the small rural village of Domrémy, would become the two unlikely forces to shape Europe's nationalist movement. Each driven by unique regional identity, their actions would forever define England and transform Charlemagne’s conquered provinces of the Holy Roman Empire into separate and exclusive spheres of influence. The single conflagration that would melt and recast Europe would be the Hundred Years' War.Edward's nationalist concerns were divided. He was an English king with French lineage and continental land holdings. Consequently, these joint land holdings and shared tributes connected two lands with different languages and often-conflicting pursuits.
Enter Joan
On March 6 of 1429, Joan or Arc (Jeanne d'Arc-"The Maid of Orléans", 1412-31) presented herself to the Dauphin of France. Why would the Dauphin listen to a 16-year-old peasant girl? Historian Stephen W. Richey sums up the situation in the French court: |
| Joan and Her Visions: A Religious War |
Because Joan was said to have visions of Michael the Archangel, Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, and had carried a message from God to the Dauphin to save "the holy kingdom of France", the conflict immediately changed from a secular one to a religious war. Furthermore, because the mission was specifically to save France, the war took on an additional nationalistic character. The English may have had ancient lineage claims to France's territory, but they were not citizens of France. They were English.
Arriving near the end of the conflict, Joan's role would be far more aggressive and nationally segregated. Paradoxically, Joan would claim her directive to be coming from God, while the pursuit of those uniquely nationalist goals would inadvertently undermine and weaken the Church's imperial grip on Europe.
Only towards the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War, following a path forged with Joan's own personal courage, would France suddenly emerge as a unified nation. Consequently, England, which had been an overwhelming military force, destined for victory throughout most of the conflict, would suddenly be handed total and absolute defeat. England would not only lose its territorial gains won during the lengthy conflict but also its pre-war, hereditary landholding. Consequently, for the first time since antiquity, England would again become an island nation. Ironically, transitioning to that island nation would become the key ingredient to forging England's own national identity. Over the next few centuries, England's eventual independence from continent and, eventually, the Church would raise it up to a world power.
All the seeds required for Europe's nationalization would be sewn during the Hundred Years' War, including language differences, disputed territories, allied relationships, along with the armies and navies required to sustain independence from future challenges or infringements.
 |
| Joan's Capture |
Once captured, Joan's fate was sealed. She was ransomed to the English who moved her to Rouen where she was subsequently tried. Tried? No military leader during the Middle Ages had been captured and "tried" before Joan.
Clerical Trial, National Agenda
The trial and execution of Joan would have a negative impact upon the Church at a time when its commanding role in the governance of Europe was already being questioned. With the Church's Augustus oversight role and the Holy Roman Emperor's Caesar role in Europe's military and civil administration, the Church had remained above national issues, or at least conflicting interests between warring provinces. |
| Trial of Joan |
The French clerics who had originally vetted Joan, in 1429, found her fit to lead. The clerics who tried Joan were both British and Burundian (an English ally). Nevertheless, all were members of the same Roman Catholic Church. Clear acceptance (approved vetting) by one group with condemnation (trial and execution) by another instantly placed national concerns above the ecclesiastical precepts of the Church. Moreover, it exposed internal church division to any laity that may be following the trial.
To further slant priorities, though a military leader, Joan was to be tried for heresy. Like Peter Waldo, who had been excommunicated by the Church for heresy a century before, Joan had claimed to be doing the work of God. However, unlike Peter Waldo, whose teachings were confrontational to the Church, Joan had only invoked the names of saints. Moreover, by all accounts going into her trial, she had been observed to be an obedient and observing Catholic.
 |
| Joan's Execution |
Still, once onboard, the papal transcripts of the trial clearly indicate the Church as having a tenacious prosecution.
Once it was clear Joan would not be ransomed, the English were set on making an example of her execution. When her trial began in January of 1431, the court simply pursued heresy while making the most out of what some considered her spiritual incantations being beyond the ecclesiastic realm of Mother Church. Going back to the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed, anyone with different interpretations of scriptures than those approved by the church had been condemned as a heretic. In Joan's instance, she was not only excluding scriptural inspiration but was insisting to have had divine council directly with God?
Nevertheless, the outcome of the trial was never in doubt. England's refusal of ransom clearly indicated they wanted Joan tried and executed. Moreover, the Church wasn't about to entertain the possibility of Joan being God's emissary, and thereby admitting the Church to be in some way inferior to Joan's mission. Even though King Charles of France had been a supporter and beneficiary of Joan's efforts, he was likely concerned with being excommunicated along with Joan. He may have even had doubts about Joan's nationalistic policy of France for the French. What about the economic future of an isolated France, once its traditional English trading partner was removed from the continent? Subsequently, Charles was actively pursuing a peaceful solution to the war over Joan's instances of more immediate and costly military action. Besides, since Joan was able to turn a century old conflict around within days of her arrival, what would become of France's king should Joan ever prove dissatisfied with him? Joan's death had rapidly become a political necessity.
National Identity
Only towards the very end of the Hundred Years' War, following a path forged with Joan's own personal courage, would France suddenly emerge as a unified nation. Consequently, England, which had been an overwhelming military force, seemingly destined for victory throughout most of the conflict, would suddenly be handed total and absolute defeat. England would not only lose its territorial gains won during the lengthy conflict but also its pre-war, hereditary landholding. The loss of landholdings in France was at the very root of England's War of the Roses which followed immediately afterwards. Consequently, for the first time since antiquity, England would again become an island nation. Ironically, transitioning to that island nation would become the key ingredient to forging England's own national identity. Over the next few centuries, England's eventual independence from continent and, eventually, church would raise it up to a world power.
 |
| Evolution of Europe from Holy Roman Empire (Click to Enlarge) |
Still, Europe was evolving and questionable territories gradually began to form national boundries. Along with national identity would come an independence from Rome's Papacy and an ever-shrinking Holy Roman Empire. Monarchs would embrace their newfound nationality while science, discovery and Protestantism would begin to flourish.
Commentary
Seeds of Nationalism
In 1456, when the armies of the Ottoman Empire were besieging Belgrade, Pope Callixtus III decided it might be a good time to mend relationships with France. Subsequently, he ordered a new trial for Joan of Arc, where she was posthumously acquitted for heresy. Meanwhile, England (War of the Roses, 1455-87), Germany and Poland (Thirteen Years' War, 1455-1485) were all embroiled in war. In fact, since Joan's death, Europe had been involved in 17 major conflicts. Consequently, Pope Callixtus rightfully became concerned the Ottoman armies would take advantage of Europe's internal division and overrun Christendom. Aside from the invading Muslims of the Ottoman Empire, almost all the wars Europe suffered during the 15th century were fought over territory.Arriving near the end of the conflict, Joan's role had been far more aggressive and nationally segregated. Paradoxically, Joan would claim her directive to be coming from God, while the pursuit of those uniquely nationalist goals would inadvertently undermine and weaken the Church's imperial grip on Europe.
All the seeds required for Europe's nationalization would be sewn during the Hundred Years' War, including language differences, disputed territories, allied relationships, along with the armies and navies required to sustain independence from future challenges or infringements.
Go to: Chapter 21) The Great Equalizer
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Got Feedback?
Comments? Questions? Corrections? Any feedback at all? Just click on the comments box at the bottom of this page and enter your thoughts. All comments are welcome.
Santuario de Guadalupe, the oil painting by Tom Mallon. This 42" x 22" canvas is the latest addition to the Santa Fe Portrait Series. The Santuario is the oldest shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe in the US.
Visit this later update by CLICKING HERE
Shostakovich and Cultural Snobbery, Could anyone survive Stalin's Purges, compose a large body, write for himself and the masses while producing constantly great work?
Visit this later update by CLICKING HERE
Tom Mallon's website "MallonArt". This website will provide you with links to all his paintings, drawings and other artwork portfolios, including the ongoing series entitled the Santa Fe Portrait.
Visit this later update by CLICKING HERE
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